George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is the 43rd and current President of the United States of America, inaugurated on January 20, 2001. The oldest son of former United States President George H. W. Bush, George W. Bush was elected president himself in the 2000 general election. Previously, Bush had been serving as the 46th governor of Texas since 1995. Bush was reelected in 2004 as president.

Bush worked in his family's oil businesses following college. In 1978, he made an unsuccessful run for the U.S. House of Representatives. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before returning to politics in a campaign for Governor of Texas. He defeated Ann Richards and was elected as Governor in 1994, serving until his successful campaign for president.

Bush won the presidency in 2000 as the Republican candidate in a close and controversial contest. Although he lost the popular vote, the Supreme Court decision in Bush v. Gore gave Bush the required number of electoral votes with a 537-vote margin in the state of Florida. As President, Bush pushed through a $1.3 trillion tax cut program and the No Child Left Behind Act, and has also pushed for socially conservative efforts such as the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act and faith-based welfare initiatives.

After the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, Bush declared a global War on Terrorism and ordered an invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban, destroy Al-Qaeda and to capture Osama bin Laden in October 2001. In March 2003, Bush ordered an invasion of Iraq, asserting that Iraq was in violation of UN Security Council Resolution 1441.[1]

Running as a self-described "war president" in the midst of the Iraq War,[2] Bush won re-election in 2004[3] after a heated general election campaign against Senator John Kerry, in which Bush's prosecution of the Iraq War and his handling of the economy became central issues.[4][5] After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism, even from former allies. His domestic popularity decreased[6] due to the war and other issues such as the federal response to Hurricane Katrina, the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy, record budget deficits, and scandals affecting the administration.

Born in New Haven, Connecticut, Bush was the first child of George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush. Bush was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with his four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, and Dorothy. Another younger sister, Robin, died in 1953 at the age of three from leukemia.[7] Bush's grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U.S. Senator from Connecticut, and his father served as U.S. President from 1989 to 1993.

Bush is sometimes referred to informally as George Bush Jr. in order to distinguish him from his father. However, because the son's full name is not exactly the same as his father's (the younger is George Walker Bush as opposed to the elder George Herbert Walker Bush), the "Jr." is incorrect.

Bush attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts where he played baseball, but "mostly made his mark as a cheerleader for the teams".[8] Following in his father's footsteps, Bush attended Yale University, where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in history in 1968. As a college senior, Bush became a member of the secretive Skull and Bones society. By his own characterization, Bush was an average student.[9]

In May 1968, at the height of the ongoing Vietnam War, Bush was accepted into the Texas Air National Guard. After training, he was assigned to duty in Houston, flying Convair F-102s out of Ellington Air Force Base.[10] Critics have alleged that Bush was favorably treated during his time of service due to his father's political standing, and that he was irregular in attendance. Bush took a transfer to the Alabama Air National Guard in 1972 to work on a Republican senate campaign, and in 1974 he obtained permission to end his six-year service obligation six months early to attend Harvard Business School.[11]

There are a number of accounts of substance abuse and otherwise disorderly conduct by Bush from this time. Bush has admitted to drinking "too much" in those years and described this period of his life as his "nomadic" period of "irresponsible youth".[12] On September 4, 1976, at the age of 30, Bush was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol near his family's summer home in Kennebunkport, Maine. He pleaded guilty, was fined $150, and had his driver's license suspended until 1978 in Maine.[13][14]

After obtaining an MBA from Harvard University,[15] Bush entered the oil industry in Texas. In 1977, he was introduced by friends to Laura Welch, a schoolteacher and librarian. They married and settled in Midland, Texas. Bush left his family's Episcopal Church to join his wife's United Methodist Church.[16]

In 1978, Bush ran for the U.S. House of Representatives from the 19th Congressional District of Texas. His opponent Kent Hance portrayed Bush as being out of touch with rural Texans; Bush lost by 6,000 votes.[17] Bush returned to the oil industry, becoming a senior partner or chief executive officer of several ventures, such as Arbusto Energy,[18] Spectrum 7, and, later, Harken Energy.[19] These ventures suffered from the general decline of oil prices in the 1980s that had affected the industry and the regional economy. Additionally, questions of possible insider trading involving Harken have arisen, though the SEC's investigation of Bush concluded that he did not have enough insider information before his stock sale to warrant a case.[20]

Bush moved with his family to Washington, D.C. in 1988, to work on his father's campaign for the U.S. presidency.[21]

Returning to Texas, Bush purchased a share in the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in April 1989, where he served as managing general partner for five years.[22] Bush presided over the trading away of Sammy Sosa, who would go on to be a popular and prodigious home run hitter for the Chicago Cubs.[23] Bush actively led the team's projects and regularly attended its games, often choosing to sit in the open stands with fans.[24] The sale of Bush's share in the Rangers brought him over $15 million from his initial $800,000 investment.[25]

Bush is often referred to by the nickname "Dubya", playing on his Southern pronunciation of the letter W, his middle initial, and distinguishing him from his father George Bush. Upon his election to the Presidency, commentators often refer to him as "Bush 43" (the 43rd President of the United States) and his father as "Bush 41"

Elected positions

Governor of Texas

Main article: George W. Bush as Governor of Texas

Bush declared his candidacy for the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election as his brother, Jeb, sought the governorship of Florida. Winning the Republican primary easily, Bush faced incumbent Governor Ann Richards, a popular Democrat who was considered the favorite.

Bush was aided by several political advisors, including Karen Hughes, John Allbaugh, and Karl Rove. The Bush campaign was criticized for allegedly using controversial methods to disparage Richards. Following an impressive performance in the debates, however, Bush's popularity grew. He won with 52 percent against Richards' 47 percent.[26]

As governor, Bush successfully sponsored legislation for tort reform, increased education funding, set higher standards for schools, and reformed the criminal justice system. Under his leadership, Texas executed a record 152 prisoners.[27] Bush used a budget surplus to push through a $2 billion tax-cut plan, the largest in Texas history, which cemented Bush's credentials as a pro-business fiscal conservative.[26]

Bush also pioneered faith-based welfare programs by extending government funding and support for religious organizations providing social services such as education, alcohol and drug abuse prevention, and reduction of domestic violence. He proclaimed June 10 to be Jesus Day in Texas, a day where he "urge[d] all Texans to answer the call to serve those in need."[28]

In 1998, Bush won re-election in a landslide victory with nearly 69 percent of the vote.[29] Within a year, he had decided to seek the Republican nomination for the presidency.

2000 Presidential candidacy

Main article: United States presidential election, 2000

After a close campaign, Al Gore greets President-elect Bush at the White House in late December of 2000.
After a close campaign, Al Gore greets President-elect Bush at the White House in late December of 2000.

Primary

Bush's campaign was managed by Rove, Hughes and Albaugh, as well as by other political associates from Texas. He was endorsed by a majority of Republicans in 38 state legislatures. After winning the Iowa caucus, Bush lost to U.S. Senator John McCain of Arizona in the New Hampshire primary. Bush then picked up eleven of the next sixteen primaries, effectively clinching the Republican nomination.

In the televised Republican presidential debate held in Des Moines, Iowa on December 13, 1999, all of the participating candidates were asked "What political philosopher or thinker do you most identify with and why?" Unlike most of the other candidates, who cited former Presidents and other political figures, Bush responded, "Christ, because he changed my heart". Bush's appeal to religious values seems to have aided him in the general election. In a Gallup poll those who said they "attend church weekly" gave him 56% of their vote in 2000 (and 63% of their vote in 2004).[30] During the election cycle, Bush labeled himself a "compassionate conservative", and his political campaign promised to "restore honor and dignity to the White House".[31]

General election

Bush chose Dick Cheney, a former U.S. Representative and Secretary of Defense, as his Vice Presidential running mate. While stressing his successful record as governor of Texas, Bush's campaign attacked[citation needed] the Democratic nominee, incumbent Vice President Al Gore, over gun control, the Kyoto Protocol, and taxation.

On election day, November 7, 2000, Bush won several key states, including Gore's home state of Tennessee. Based on exit polls, television networks initially called the state of Florida for Gore, then withdrew that projection and later called the state, along with the entire election, for Bush. Some time after some networks reported that Bush had won Florida, Gore conceded the election, and then rescinded that concession less than one hour later, when it was declared that the results were too close to call. The vote count, which favored Bush, was contested over allegations of irregularities in the voting and tabulation processes. Because of Florida state law, a state-wide machine recount was ordered. Eventually, four counties in Florida which had large numbers of presidential undervotes began a manual hand recount of ballots. On December 8, the Florida Supreme Court ruled that every county with a large number of undervotes would perform a hand recount. On December 9, in the Bush v. Gore case, the U.S. Supreme Court, with a 5-4 vote, reversed the Florida Supreme Court ruling and stopped the statewide hand recount. The machine recount showed that Bush had won the Florida vote by a margin of 537 votes out of 6 million cast, making it the 30th state he carried.[32]

Bush received 271 electoral votes to Gore's 266 as a result of the Florida outcome. However, he lost the popular vote by more than half a million votes,[33] making him the first President elected without at least a plurality of the popular vote since Benjamin Harrison in 1888.[34][35]

2004 Presidential candidacy
Bush sworn into his second term on January 20, 2005 by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, watched on by First Lady Laura Bush and their daughters Barbara and Jenna Bush, as well as Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist and Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert.
Bush sworn into his second term on January 20, 2005 by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, watched on by First Lady Laura Bush and their daughters Barbara and Jenna Bush, as well as Senate Majority Leader Bill Frist and Speaker of the House Dennis Hastert.

Main article: United States presidential election, 2004

Bush commanded broad support in the Republican Party and did not encounter a primary challenge. He appointed Kenneth Mehlman as campaign manager, with a political strategy devised by Rove.[36] Bush outlined an agenda that included a strong commitment to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, a renewal of the USA PATRIOT Act, making earlier tax cuts permanent, cutting the budget deficit in half, promoting education, as well as reform in tort law, Social Security, and national taxes.

The Bush campaign advertised across the U.S. against Democratic candidates, including Bush's emerging opponent, Massachusetts Senator John Kerry. Kerry and other Democrats attacked Bush on the war in Iraq, perceived excesses of the USA PATRIOT Act and for allegedly failing to stimulate the economy and job growth.The Bush campaign portrayed Kerry as a staunch liberal who would raise taxes and increase the size of government. The Bush campaign continuously criticized Kerry's seemingly contradictory statements on the war in Iraq, and claimed Kerry lacked the decisiveness and vision necessary for success in the war on terrorism. Bush carried 31 of 50 states for a total of 286 Electoral College votes.

Bush won an outright majority of the popular vote, the first president to do so since his father in 1988.[37]

Cabinet appointments

Main article: George W. Bush Cabinet

Presidency
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Main articles: George W. Bush's first term as President of the United States and George W. Bush's second term as President of the United States

Domestic policy

Main article: Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration

Economic policy

Main article: Economic policy of the George W. Bush administration

Facing opposition in Congress, Bush held town hall-style public meetings across the U.S. in 2001 to increase public support for his plan for a $1.35 trillion tax cut program — one of the largest tax cuts in U.S. history. Bush and his economic advisers argued that unspent government funds should be returned to taxpayers. With reports of the threat of recession from Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, Bush argued that such a tax cut would stimulate the economy and create jobs.[38]

Under the Bush Administration, unemployment peaked at a high of 6.2% in June 2003, and is currently at a low of 4.4%. The economy has remained strong, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average setting several record highs and the GDP experiencing healthy growth.[39][40] Several news sources argue that the economy, however strong, is only benefiting the wealthy, and not the majority of middle and lower-class citizens,[41][42][43] while others have claimed the exact opposite.[44]
Bush signs the No Child Left Behind Act into law.
Bush signs the No Child Left Behind Act into law.

Education and health

The No Child Left Behind Act aimed to measure and close the gap between rich and poor student performance, provide options to parents with students in low-performing schools, and target more federal funding to low-income schools. Critics argue that Bush has underfunded his own program, and Democratic Senator Ted Kennedy has claimed: "The tragedy is that these long-overdue reforms are finally in place, but the funds are not."[45] Many educational experts have criticized these reforms, contending that NCLBA's focus on "high stakes testing" and quantitative outcomes is counterproductive.[46][47] Bush increased funding for the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health in his first years of office, and created education programs to strengthen the grounding in science and mathematics for American high school students. However, funding for NIH failed to keep up with inflation in 2004 and 2005, and was actually cut in 2006, the first such cut in 36 years.[48]

Social services and Social Security

Bush promoted increased deregulation and investment options in social services, leading Republican efforts to pass the Medicare Act of 2003, which added prescription drug coverage to Medicare and created Health Savings Accounts, which would permit people to set aside a portion of their Medicare tax to build a "nest egg". The retired persons lobby group AARP worked with the Bush Administration on the program and gave their endorsement. Bush said the law, estimated to cost $400 billion over the first 10 years, would give the elderly "better choices and more control over their health care".[49]
George Bush and Álvaro Uribe in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia
George Bush and Álvaro Uribe in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia

Bush began his second term by outlining a major initiative to reform Social Security, which was facing record deficit projections beginning in 2005. Bush made it the centerpiece of his agenda despite contrary beliefs in the media and in the U.S. Congress, which saw the program as the "third rail of politics," with the American public being suspicious of any attempt to change it. It was also widely believed to be the province of the Democratic Party, with Republicans in the past having been accused of efforts to dismantle or privatize it. In his 2005 State of the Union address, Bush discussed the allegedly impending bankruptcy of the program and attacked political inertia against reform. He proposed options to permit Americans to divert a portion of their Social Security tax (FICA) into secured investments, creating a "nest egg" that he claimed would enjoy steady growth. Despite emphasizing safeguards and remaining open to other plans, Bush's proposal was criticized for its high cost, and Democrats attacked it as an effort to partially privatize the system, and for leaving Americans open to the whims of the market. Bush embarked on a 60-day national tour, campaigning vigorously for his initiative in media events ("Conversations on Social Security") in a largely unsuccessful attempt to gain support from the general public.[50]

Environmental policy and global warming

Main article: Environment from Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration

Upon arriving in office in 2001, Bush withdrew United States support of the Kyoto Protocol, an amendment to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change seeking to impose mandatory targets for reducing "greenhouse gas" emissions - carbon dioxide emitted in the burning of fossil fuels. Bush asserted that uncertainties existed in climate change science regarding the degree to which human activity is the cause and cited concerns regarding the treaty's impact on U.S. industry and economy and the fact that China and India had not yet agreed.[51] The Bush Administration's stance on global warming has remained controversial in the scientific and environmental communities during his presidency. In 2004, the Director of NASA's Goddard Institute, James Hansen, publicly and harshly accused the Administration of misinforming the public by suppressing the scientific evidence of the dangers of greenhouse gases, saying the Bush Administration wanted to hear only scientific results that “fit predetermined, inflexible positions” and edited reports to make the dangers sound less threatening in what he asserted was "direct opposition to the most fundamental precepts of science."[52][53] Bush had said that he has consistently noted that global warming is a serious problem but asserted there is a "debate over whether it's manmade or naturally caused" and maintained that regardless of that debate his administration was working on plans to make America less dependent on foreign oil "for economic and national security reasons."[54] In his 2007 State of the Union Address, Bush renewed his pledge to work toward diminished reliance on foreign oil by reducing fossil fuel consumption and increasing alternative fuel production.[55]

In 2002, Bush announced the Clear Skies Initiative,[56] aimed at amending the Clean Air Act to reduce air pollution through the use of emissions trading programs. Critics contended that it would have weakened the original legislation by allowing higher levels of pollutants than were permitted at that time.[57] The initiative was introduced to Congress, but failed to make it out of committee.

In 2006, Bush declared the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a national monument, creating the largest marine reserve to date. It comprises 84 million acres and is home to 7,000 species of fish, birds and other marine animals, many of which are specific to only those islands.[58] The move was hailed by conservationists for "its foresight and leadership in protecting this incredible area."[59]

Stem cell research and first use of veto power

Federal funding for medical research involving the creation or destruction of human embryos through the Department of Health and Human Services and the National Institutes of Health has been forbidden by law since the Republican Revolution of 1995.[60] Bush has asserted that he supports limited stem cell research, but only to the extent that human embryos are not destroyed in order to harvest additional stem cells.[61] On August 9, 2001, Bush signed an executive order lifting the ban on federal funding for the 71 existing "lines" of stem cells,[62] but the ability of these existing lines to provide an adequate medium for testing has been questioned. Testing can only be done on 12 of the original lines, and there are fears that even these lines are corrupted.[63]

On July 19, 2006, Bush used his veto power for the first time in his presidency to veto the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act, a bill that would have reversed the Dickey Amendment, permitting federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of an embryo.[64]

Immigration

In 2006, Bush somewhat shifted focus to re-emphasize immediate and comprehensive immigration reform. Going beyond calls from Republicans and conservatives to secure the border, Bush demanded that Congress create a "temporary guest-worker program" to allow more than 12 million illegal immigrants to obtain legal status. Bush continues to argue that the lack of legal status denies the protections of U.S. laws to millions of people who face dangers of poverty and exploitation, and penalizes employers despite a demand for immigrant labor. Bush urged Congress to provide additional funding for border security, and committed to deploying 6,000 National Guard troops to the United States-Mexico border.[65]

Justice

On August 17, 2006, a U.S. district court judge in Detroit ruled that warrantless and otherwise congressionally unauthorized eavesdropping on telephone calls under the Terrorist Surveillance Program was unconstitutional. The judge agreed to place her ruling on hold pending an appeal.[66]

On August 28, 2006, Congress approved a bill that made the detainee interrogation program legal.[67] The bill was in response to the Supreme Court's decision in June that the program is illegal.[67] It was the second time Bush had tried to approve it through Congress.[67] Bush signed the bill into law on October 17, 2006 as the Military Commissions Act of 2006.

Hurricane Katrina

Main article: Political effects of Hurricane Katrina

One of the worst natural disasters in U.S. history, Hurricane Katrina, struck early in Bush’s second term. Katrina formed in late August during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and devastated much of the north-central Gulf Coast of the United States, particularly New Orleans.[68]
Bush shakes hands with New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin September 2, 2005 after viewing the devastation of Hurricane Katrina
Bush shakes hands with New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin September 2, 2005 after viewing the devastation of Hurricane Katrina

Bush declared a state of emergency in Louisiana on August 27,[69] and in Mississippi and Alabama on August 28;[70][71] he authorized DHS and FEMA to manage the disaster, but his announcement failed to spur these agencies to action.[72] The eye of the hurricane made landfall on August 29, and New Orleans started to flood due to levee breaches; later that day, Bush declared that a major disaster existed in Louisiana,[73] officially authorizing FEMA to start using federal funds to help with the recovery effort. On August 30, Department of Homeland Security secretary Michael Chertoff declared it "an incident of national significance,"[74] triggering the first use of the newly created National Response Plan. Several days later, on September 2, National Guard troops first entered the city of New Orleans.[75] The same day, Bush toured parts of Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama and declared that the success of the recovery effort up to that point was "not enough."[76]

Due to mounting criticism as the disaster in New Orleans intensified, Bush claimed full responsibility for the failures on the part of the federal government in its response to the hurricane.[75] Criticisms of Bush focused on three main issues. First, leaders from both parties attacked the president for having appointed incompetent leaders to positions of power at FEMA, most notably Michael D. Brown,[77] who was a horse trader before commanding FEMA. Second, many people argued that the inadequacy of the federal response was the result of the Iraq War and the demands it placed on the armed forces and the federal budget.[78] Third, in the days immediately following the disaster, Bush denied having received warnings about the possibility of floodwaters breaching the levees protecting New Orleans.[79] However, the presidential videoconference briefing of August 28 shows Max Mayfield warning the President that overflowing the levees was "obviously a very, very grave concern."[80] Critics claimed that the President was misrepresenting his administration's role in what they saw as a flawed response.

Foreign policy

Main article: Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration

Bush, President of the Palestinian Authority Mahmoud Abbas, and former Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon meet at the Red Sea Summit in Aqaba, Jordan on June 4, 2003.
Bush, President of the Palestinian Authority Mahmoud Abbas, and former Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon meet at the Red Sea Summit in Aqaba, Jordan on June 4, 2003.

The Bush administration withdrew U.S. support for several international agreements, including the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) with Russia. It pursued a national missile defense which was previously barred by the ABM treaty and was never ratified by Congress.[81] Bush also expressed U.S. support for the defense of Taiwan following the stand-off in April 2001 with the People's Republic of China over the crash between an EP-3E American spy plane and a Chinese air force jet, leading to the detention of U.S. personnel. In 2003–04, Bush authorized U.S. military intervention in Haiti and Liberia to protect U.S. interests.

Bush emphasized a careful approach to the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians. Bush denounced Palestinian Liberation Organization leader Yasser Arafat for alleged support of violence. However, he endorsed a two-state solution[citation needed] and sponsored dialogs between Prime Ministers Ariel Sharon and Mahmoud Abbas. Bush supported Sharon's unilateral disengagement plan, and lauded the democratic elections held in Palestine following Arafat's death.
President George W. Bush with Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon at the White House.
President George W. Bush with Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon at the White House.

In his State of the Union Address in January 2003, Bush outlined a five-year strategy for global emergency AIDS relief, the President's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief. Bush announced $15 billion for this effort—$3 billion per year for five years—but requested less in annual budgets.[82] This budget represented more money contributed to fight AIDS globally than all other donor countries combined.[citation needed]
President George W. Bush with Australian Prime Minister John Howard at the White House. From left to right: Prime Minister John Howard's wife Janette Howard, Laura Bush, John Howard, and George W. Bush.
President George W. Bush with Australian Prime Minister John Howard at the White House. From left to right: Prime Minister John Howard's wife Janette Howard, Laura Bush, John Howard, and George W. Bush.

Bush condemned the attacks by militia forces on the people of Darfur, and denounced the killings in Sudan as genocide.[83] Bush said that an international peacekeeping presence was critical in Darfur, but opposed referring the situation to the International Criminal Court.
President George W. Bush, then-President of Mexico, Vicente Fox and Canada's Prime Minister Stephen Harper stand in front of "El Castillo" in Chichen Itza, March 30, 2006.
President George W. Bush, then-President of Mexico, Vicente Fox and Canada's Prime Minister Stephen Harper stand in front of "El Castillo" in Chichen Itza, March 30, 2006.

Bush began his second term with an emphasis on improving strained relations with European nations. He appointed long-time adviser Karen Hughes to oversee a global public relations campaign to improve the image of the U.S. and significantly increased development aid[citation needed] to countries with a focus on encouraging democracy and human rights. Bush lauded the pro-democracy struggles in Georgia and Ukraine. He led[citation needed] international pressure against Syria to withdraw troops from Lebanon. In March 2006, Bush visited India, leading to renewed ties between the two countries, particularly in areas of nuclear energy and counter-terrorism cooperation.[84] Relations between the U.S., Germany, and Canada also improved following the election of conservative governments in those countries.[citation needed] Midway through Bush's second term, many analysts observed a retreat from his freedom and democracy agenda, highlighted in policy changes toward some oil-rich former Soviet republics in central Asia.[85]
President George W. Bush traverses Cross Hall in the White House with British Prime Minister Tony Blair to attend a press conference in the East Room in 2006 discussing the Middle east Crisis between Israel and Lebanon.
President George W. Bush traverses Cross Hall in the White House with British Prime Minister Tony Blair to attend a press conference in the East Room in 2006 discussing the Middle east Crisis between Israel and Lebanon.

The democratic election of the Hamas organization in the parliamentary elections of the Palestinian Territories, along with democratic gains in legislatures for the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Hezbollah in Lebanon, all of whom are seen as terrorist organizations by the United States, also contributed to a less aggressive approach to democratic reform world-wide from the Bush administration.[citation needed]

September 11, 2001

Main article: September 11, 2001 attacks

The September 11 terrorist attacks were a major turning point in Bush's presidency. That evening, he addressed the U.S. from the Oval Office, promising a strong response to the attacks but emphasizing the need for the nation to come together and comfort the families of the victims. On September 14, he visited the World Trade Center site, meeting with Mayor Rudy Giuliani and firefighters, police officers and volunteers. Bush addressed the gathering via megaphone while standing on a heap of rubble:
“ I can hear you. The rest of the world hears you. And the people who knocked these buildings down will hear all of us soon. ”
Bush addresses rescue workers at Ground Zero in New York, September 14, 2001.
Bush addresses rescue workers at Ground Zero in New York, September 14, 2001.

In a September 20, 2001 speech, Bush condemned Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda, and issued the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, where bin Laden was operating, an ultimatum to "hand over the terrorists, or … share in their fate."[86] Bush declared a global War on Terrorism, and after the Afghan Taliban regime was not forthcoming with Osama bin Laden, he ordered the invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban regime.[87]

War on Terror

Main article: War on Terrorism

After the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States by the al Qaeda organization of Osama bin Laden and the invasion of Afghanistan in response, Bush discussed a global War on Terror in his January 29, 2002 State of the Union address most remembered for his assertion that an "axis of evil", an alliance between terrorists and states like North Korea, Iran and Iraq, was "arming to threaten the peace of the world" and "pose[d] a grave and growing danger".[88] The Bush Administration proceeded to assert a right and intention to engage in preemptive war, also called preventive war, in response to perceived threats.[89] This would form a basis for what became known as the Bush Doctrine. The broader "War on Terror", allegations of an "axis of evil", and, in particular, the doctrine of preemptive war, began to weaken the unprecedented levels of international and domestic support for Bush and United States action against al Qaeda following the September 11 attacks.[90]

Some national leaders alleged abuse by U.S. troops and called for the U.S. to shut down detention centers in Guantanamo Bay and elsewhere. Dissent from, and criticism of, Bush's leadership in the War on Terror increased as the war in Iraq expanded.[91][92][93] In 2006, a National Intelligence Estimate expressed the combined opinion of the United States' own intelligence agencies, concluding that the Iraq War had become the "cause celebre for jihadists" and that jihad movement was growing.[94][95]

Afghanistan

Main article: 2001 war in Afghanistan

President George W. Bush and President Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan appear together in 2006 at a joint news conference at the Presidential Palace in Kabul.
President George W. Bush and President Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan appear together in 2006 at a joint news conference at the Presidential Palace in Kabul.

On October 7, 2001, U.S. and British forces initiated bombing campaigns that led to the November 13, arrival of Northern Alliance troops in Kabul. The main goals of the war were to defeat the Taliban, drive al Qaeda out of Afghanistan, and capture key al Qaeda leaders. By December 2001, the UN had installed the Afghan Interim Authority chaired by Hamid Karzai.[96][97] However, efforts to kill or capture al Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden failed as he escaped a battle in December 2001 in the mountainous region of Tora Bora, which escape the Bush Administration later acknowledged resulted from a failure to commit enough U.S. ground troops.[98] Bin Laden and al Qaeda's number two leader, Ayman al-Zawahiri, as well as the leader of the Taliban, Mohammed Omar, remained at large as of January 2007.

Despite the initial success in driving the Taliban from power in Kabul, the war continued as by early 2003 the Taliban was regrouping, amassing new funds and recruits.[99] In 2006 the Taliban insurgency appeared larger, fiercer, and better organized than expected, with large-scale allied offensives such as the Operation Mountain Thrust attaining limited success.[100][101][102]

Iraq

Main article: Iraq War

In late 2002, Bush began urging the United Nations to enforce Iraqi disarmament mandates, claiming that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction. These claims precipitated a diplomatic crisis. Bush also argued that the Iraqi government was supporting al Qaeda. The UN reinitiated weapons inspections, which ended upon U.S. advisement four days prior to the U.S. invasion, despite the inspectors' requests for more time.[103] Many international leaders, such as UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, heavily criticized the war, agreeing that more time should have been given to the inspectors.[104]
Bush shakes hands with Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki.
Bush shakes hands with Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki.

In October 2002 the CIA drew together an National Intelligence Estimate on Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction, using information from all major U.S. intelligence services, including dissenting views,[105] from which Bush received a one-page summary.[106] No weapons of mass destruction were found, and critics alleged that the administration had exaggerated the evidence for Iraq's possession of Weapons of Mass Destruction and for ties between Sadaam Hussein and al Qaeda.[107] Bush later stated that "It is true that much of the intelligence turned out to be wrong,"[108] but said he would have made the same decision if he had known more.

The war effort (approved by the U.S. Congress) was joined by more than 20 other nations (most notably the United Kingdom) whom the Bush Administration designated the "coalition of the willing".[109] The invasion of Iraq began on March 20, 2003, and Iraqi military was quickly defeated. On May 1, 2003, Bush declared the end of major combat operations in his "Mission Accomplished" speech.[110]

Following the invasion, the situation deteriorated and by 2007 the conflict between Iraqi Sunni and Shi'a factions was described by the National Intelligence Estimate as having elements of a civil war.[111] In a January 10, 2007 address to the American people, Bush stated that "Eighty percent of Iraq's sectarian violence occurs within 30 miles of the capital. This violence is splitting Baghdad into sectarian enclaves, and shaking the confidence of all Iraqis."[112] On May 1, 2007, Bush used his veto for only the second time in his presidency, rejecting a congressional bill setting a deadline for the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq.[113]

North Korea

Main article: United States-North Korea relations

Bush publicly condemned Kim Jong-Il of North Korea, naming North Korea one of three states in an "axis of evil," and saying that "[t]he United States of America will not permit the world's most dangerous regimes to threaten us with the world's most destructive weapons."[114] Within months, "both countries had walked away from their respective commitments under the U.S.-DPRK Agreed Framework of October 1994."[115]

North Korea's October 9, 2006 detonation of a nuclear device further complicated Bush's foreign policy, which centered for both terms of his presidency on "[preventing] the terrorists and regimes who seek chemical, biological or nuclear weapons from threatening the United States and the world."[116] Bush condemned North Korea's claims, reaffirmed his commitment to "a nuclear-free Korean Peninsula," and stated that "transfer of nuclear weapons or material by North Korea to states or non-state entities would be considered a grave threat to the United States," for which North Korea would be held accountable.[117]

On May 7, 2007, North Korea agreed to shut down its nuclear reactors immediately pending the release of frozen funds held in a foreign bank account. This was a result of a series of unilateral three-way talks initiated by the United States. [118]

Assassination attempt

On May 10, 2005, while Bush was giving a speech in the Freedom Square in Tbilisi, Georgia, a live hand grenade was thrown by Vladimir Arutinian towards the podium where he and Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili were seated. It landed in the crowd about 65 feet from the podium after hitting a girl; it did not detonate. Arutinian was arrested in July 2005, confessed, and was convicted in January 2006 and given a life sentence.[119]

Criticism and public perception

Main articles: Criticism of George W. Bush and Public perception of George W. Bush
See also: Fictionalized portrayals of George W. Bush

Domestic perceptions

See also: Movement to impeach George W. Bush

CBS News/New York Times Bush public opinion polling from February 2001 to March 2007. Blue denotes "approve", red "disapprove", and gray "unsure". Large increases in approval followed the September 11 attacks and the beginning of the 2003 Iraq conflict.
CBS News/New York Times Bush public opinion polling from February 2001 to March 2007. Blue denotes "approve", red "disapprove", and gray "unsure". Large increases in approval followed the September 11 attacks and the beginning of the 2003 Iraq conflict.

At the beginning of his first term, Bush was regarded by some as lacking legitimacy due to his narrow victory in Florida and the attendant controversy surrounding his overall victory, which included accusations of vote suppression and tampering. Bush began his presidency with approval ratings near 50%;[120] however, following the September 11 attacks, Bush gained an approval rating of greater than 85%, maintaining 80–90% approval for four months after the attacks. Since then, his approval ratings and approval of handling of domestic and foreign policy issues have steadily dropped. Bush has received heavy criticism for his handling of the Iraq War, his response to Hurricane Katrina, and to the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse, NSA warrantless surveillance, and Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp controversies. Additionally, critics have decried his frequent use of signing statements, contending that they are unconstitutional.[121] The decision of Rep. John Conyers (D-MI) the House Judiciary Chair to hold hearings on Bush’s use of “signing statements”, has been hailed by the President’s critics as a step towards impeachment.[122]

In the 2004 elections, 95–98% of the Republican electorate approved of him. This support waned, however, due mostly to Republicans' growing frustration with Bush on the issues of spending and illegal immigration. Many Republicans began criticizing Bush on his policies in Iraq, Iran and the Palestinian Territories.[123] Bush's approval rating has been below the 50 percent mark in AP-Ipsos polling since December 2004.[124]

Polls conducted in 2006 showed an average of 37% approval ratings for Bush;[125] the lowest for any second term president in this point of term since Harry Truman in March 1951, when his approval rating was 28 percent,[124][126] which contributed to what Bush called the "thumping" of the GOP in the 2006 mid-term elections.[127]

In a Newsweek poll of May 5, 2007, Bush received an approval rate of 28%, the lowest of any president since Jimmy Carter in 1979 and a point lower than his father's lowest rating.[128]

Calls for the impeachment of Bush have been made by various groups and individuals, with their reasons usually centering on the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy,[129] the Bush administration's justification for the war in Iraq,[130] and violations of the Geneva Conventions.[131] Opinion polling has shown that a majority of Americans would support impeaching Bush if it was found that he had lied about the reasons for the war in Iraq.[132] However, when asked if Bush should be impeached, a majority of Americans disagreed.[133]

Bush's intellectual capacities have been questioned by the news media,[134] as well as other politicians.[135][136] Detractors tended to cite the various linguistic errors made by Bush during his public speeches (colloquially known as Bushisms).[137]

Activist and filmmaker Michael Moore released Fahrenheit 9/11 in 2004, making a plethora of accusations against Bush, most notably using public sentiments following 9/11 for political purposes, financial connections between the Bush family and the prominent Saudi Arabian families such as the royal family and the Bin Laden family, and lying about the cause for war in Iraq. In 2000 and again in 2004, Time magazine named George W. Bush as its Person of the Year.[138][139]
An anti-Iraq War protester in London carries a placard calling Bush the "World's #1 Terrorist".
An anti-Iraq War protester in London carries a placard calling Bush the "World's #1 Terrorist".

Foreign perceptions

Bush has been widely criticized in the international community; he was targeted by the global anti-war and anti-globalization campaigns, and criticized for his foreign policy in general. Bush's policies were also the subject of heated criticism in the 2002 elections in Germany and the 2006 elections in Canada.[140][141] Bush was openly condemned by current and former international leaders such as Gerhard Schröder, Jean Chrétien, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, Romano Prodi, Paul Martin, and notably Hugo Chávez. Later in Bush's presidency, tensions arose between himself and Vladimir Putin, which has led to a cooling of their relationship.[142]

Bush has been described as having especially close personal relationships with Tony Blair and Vicente Fox, although formal relations are sometimes strained.[143][144][145]

In 2006 a majority of respondents in 18 of 21 countries surveyed around the world were found to hold an unfavorable opinion of Bush. Respondents indicated that they judged his administration as "negative" for world security.[146][147] A poll conducted in Britain named Bush the second biggest "threat to world peace" after Bin Laden, topping North Korean president Kim Jong-Il.[148] According to a poll taken in November 2006, Finns also believed that Bush was the biggest "threat to world peace" after Bin Laden. Kim Jong-Il came in third in the poll and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Hassan Nasrallah came joint fourth.[149]

Posted by wordblogger at 9:03 AM 0 comments



Friday, May 11, 2007
Britney Spears

Britney Jean Spears (born December 2, 1981) is a Grammy Award-winning[1] American pop singer, dancer, actress, author and songwriter. She is best known for her studio albums, music videos, and songs such as "...Baby One More Time", and "Oops!...I Did It Again". In the early 2000s, Spears's success as a singer led her way to high-profile advertising deals and endorsements, as well as forays into other forms of media, including film and reality television. Her third and fourth albums, Britney and In the Zone, were released during this era. In 2004, she married back-up dancer and aspiring rap artist Kevin Federline, and the following year she gave birth to their first son, Sean Preston. Their second son, Jayden James, was born in 2006. Spears filed for divorce from Federline on November 7, 2006 citing irreconcilable differences.[2]

Spears has sold over 76 million albums worldwide according to TIME magazine.[3] The RIAA ranks Spears as the eighth best-selling female artist in American music history, having sold 31 million albums in the U.S.[4]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Biography
o 1.1 Childhood and discovery
o 1.2 1998–2000: Early commercial success
o 1.3 2001–2003: Career achievements
o 1.4 2004–2006: Marriages, children and divorce
o 1.5 2007: Personal struggles
o 1.6 Return To Music
* 2 Movies and television
* 3 Discography
o 3.1 Albums
o 3.2 DVDs
o 3.3 Number-one singles
* 4 Products
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 External links

Biography

Childhood and discovery
Britney in The New Mickey Mouse Club, 1993.
Britney in The New Mickey Mouse Club, 1993.

Britney Spears was born in McComb, Mississippi,[5] and raised Southern Baptist. Her parents are James Parnell Spears, a building contractor, and Lynne Irene Bridges, a former grade school teacher. Spears's brother, Bryan, is one of her managers, and her sister, Jamie-Lynn, is an actress and singer. Her maternal grandmother, Lillian Woolmore,[6] was an English war-bride, who met Spears's maternal grandfather, Barnett O'Field Bridges, in England during World War II, and subsequently moved with him to the US. Her paternal grandparents were June Austin Spears and Emma Jean Forbes.[7][6]

Spears was an accomplished gymnast, attending gymnastics classes until age nine and competing in state-level competitions. She performed in local dance revues and her local Baptist church choirs, and was auditioning for the Disney Channel's The New Mickey Mouse Club by the time she was eight. Although she was considered too young to join the series at the time, a producer on the show introduced her to a New York agent. Spears subsequently spent three summers at NYC's Professional Performing Arts School and also appeared in a number of off-Broadway productions, including 1991's Ruthless! In 1992 she landed a spot on Star Search, and though she won the first round, she lost in the second.[8] Spears then returned to the Disney Channel for a spot on the New Mickey Mouse Club and was accepted. She was featured in the 1993–94 seasons from the ages of 11–13. Other performers on the show included fellow pop singer Christina Aguilera, Justin Timberlake, and Joshua Chasez, who later became members of the pop group 'N Sync, Keri Russell, and actor Ryan Gosling.[9] After the show ended, Spears went back home to Kentwood, Louisiana and entered high school at 14 where she had her last bit of normalcy.[10]

Spears briefly joined the all-female pop group Innosense. She later decided to go solo and a few years later in recorded a demo tape, which landed in the hands of Jive Records. She was signed to that label and began touring American venues for a series of concerts sponsored by American teen magazines, before joining *NSYNC and becoming their opening act.

1998–2000: Early commercial success
Spears clad in a provocatively modified school uniform in the video for "...Baby One More Time" (1998)
Spears clad in a provocatively modified school uniform in the video for "...Baby One More Time" (1998)

Towards the end of 1998, Spears's debut single "...Baby One More Time" hit the airwaves. Accompanied by a music video that featured the pop princess in a school uniform, the song became an international success, earning double platinum sales and going to number one in the UK, and a large number of countries throughout the world. Her first solo single achieved nine million sales worldwide.[11] The debut album of the same title was released in January 1999,...Baby One More Time reached number one in the Billboard 200.[12] The album received mixed reviews; All Music Guide gave it 4 out of 5 stars, while Rolling Stone gave it 2 out of 5 stars and wrote, "While several Cherion-crafted kiddie-funk jams serve up beefy hooks, shameless schlock slowies, like "E-Mail My Heart," are pure spam."[13][14] The magazine later featured Spears on the April 1999 cover which along with a photo shoot triggered speculation that the still-seventeen-year-old had had breast implants which she denied.[15][16] The success of her music coupled with her controversial image had made her one of the year's biggest stars.
Audio samples:

* "...Baby One More Time" (1999) (file info) — play in browser (beta)
o Britney Spears' first major hit single worldwide.
* "Oops!... I Did It Again" (2000) (file info) — play in browser (beta)
o Britney Spears's lead single from her sophomore album Oops!... I Did It Again.
* Problems playing the files? See media help.

Her first album brought her various awards and nominations. In December, she took home four Billboard Music Awards including one for Female Artist of the Year, and the next month won for Favorite Pop/Rock New Artist at the American Music Awards.[17] At the 2000 Grammy Awards Spears received two nominations, including one for Best New Artist which she lost out to Christina Aguilera, and another for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for "...Baby One More Time."

Following the success of her debut, Spears was ready for her second album. Her sophomore effort, Oops!... I Did It Again, debuted at number one in the U.S., where it sold 1,319,193 units during its first week, the record for biggest first-week sales of an album by any female artist.[18] Concerning both musical content and sales, the album was very similar to Spears's debut, although it fared better with critics.[19] The album's lead single, "Oops!... I Did It Again" broke a record for most radio station additions in a single day, and quickly became a U.S. top ten hit and number one single in other countries such as the UK.[20] Spears kicked off her first world tour, the Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour, in the summer of 2000. During a performance at the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards, she ripped off a black suit to reveal a provocative nude-colored and crystal-adorned outfit that generated controversy.[21] She finished the year with two Billboard Music Awards,[22] and received two Grammy nominations for Oops!... I Did It Again in the categories of Best Pop Vocal Album and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance.

2001–2003: Career achievements

Spears's success had made her notable in the music industry as well as popular culture. In early 2001 she caught the attention of Pepsi who gave Spears a multi-million dollar promotional deal which included numerous television commercials, point-of-purchase promotions and Internet ties between Spears and the company.[23]

Spears released her third studio album in November 2001. Britney was the first album on which Spears assumed some creative control co-writing five of the album's tracks. It had a successful debut at number one in the U.S. selling 745,744 units during its first week, and making her the only female artist in SoundScan history to have her first three albums debut at number one.[24][25] The album fared well with critics such as All Music Guide who gave it 4.5 out of 5 stars describing the album's title tracks as being "pivotal moments on Britney Spears' third album, the record where she strives to deepen her persona, making it more adult while still recognizably Britney."[26] In contrast Rolling Stone said of the album "Britney belabors the obvious: Spears is one month away from entering her twenties and clearly needs to grow up if she's going to bring her fans along."[27] The singles didn't perform as well; Britney's lead single I'm a Slave 4 U was able to peak at 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 making it the album's biggest hit.[28] To help promote the album, Spears embarked on the Dream Within a Dream Tour in November of 2001. The tour hit a sour note in Mexico City when she was forced to cut her last show short due to bad weather and angering her audience.[29]
Audio samples:

* "I'm a Slave 4 U" (2001) (file info) — play in browser (beta)
o Britney Spears' lead single from her third album Britney.
* "Toxic" (2003) (file info) — play in browser (beta)
o Britney Spears' comeback single which entered at number-one in the UK Singles Chart.
* Problems playing the files? See media help.

With the end of the tour, Spears announced she would take a 6 month break from her career.[30] Earlier that year Spears's four-year relationship with Justin Timberlake ended.[31] Speculation that Spears had been unfaithful began circulating due to Timberlake's 2002 song "Cry Me a River" and its subsequent music video.[32] The song's music video showed an actress playing what could be construed as a Britney look-alike with certain physical features resembling Spears. Timberlake has denied that it was meant to portray Britney.[33] Britney's break seemed to have ended when she returned to the spotlight in August 2003. In a performance at the MTV Video Music Awards, Spears appeared with Christina Aguilera performing the song "Like a Virgin" and both girls were later joined by Madonna. Spears and Aguilera each locked lips with Madonna in a highly-publicized kiss.[34][35][36]

In a September 2003 interview with Tucker Carlson of CNN, on the subject of the 2003 Iraq War, Spears said, "Honestly, I think we should just trust our president in every decision he makes and should just support that, you know, and be faithful in what happens."[37] The footage of this quote later appeared in Michael Moore's documentary Fahrenheit 9/11.
Spears performing in September 2003.
Spears performing in September 2003.

November 2003 saw the release of Spears's fourth studio album, In the Zone. Jettisoning the Max Martin-produced synthpop of her earlier releases, the album took in lesser-known producers such as RedZone and big names including Moby and R. Kelly. Spears co-wrote eight of the album's thirteen songs and co-produced some of her material for the first time. In the Zone went to the top of the U.S. charts in its debut week, selling over 609,000 copies. This made Spears the only female in music history to have her first four studio albums debut at number one.[38] The album had a mild reception from critics. Stylus Magazine gave the album a D and even blamed her career choices saying, "Ultimately, In the Zone suffers greatly from Britney's uneasy transition from teen tart to sexually powerful woman. Had Britney been in charge of her career direction instead of mercilessly prostituted by her management, she might have been able to produce something with some semblance of musical vision."[39] The Guardian praised the albums melodies and her effort giving it 4 out of 5 stars and writing, "Unlike previous Britney albums, In the Zone has no filler and no shoddy cover versions, just 57 varieties of blue-chip hit-factory pop. There is southern hip-hop, deep house, Neptunes-style R&B, the ubiquitous Diwali beat and, most importantly, oodles of Madonna."[40] The album spawned the international number one and U.S. top ten hit single, "Toxic", which won Spears her first Grammy in the category of Best Dance Recording.[1]

2004–2006: Marriages, children and divorce

Spears married childhood friend Jason Allen Alexander on January 3, 2004 in Las Vegas, Nevada.[41] The marriage lasted fifty-five hours, ending with an annulment granted on January 5 which stated that Spears "lacked understanding of her actions to the extent that she was incapable of agreeing to marriage because before entering into the marriage the Plaintiff and Defendant did not know each other's likes and dislikes, each others' desires to have or not have children, and each other's desires as to State of residency".[42][43]
Audio samples:

* "My Prerogative" (2004) (file info) — play in browser (beta)
o Originally song by Bobby Brown and the lead of Spears' first Greatest Hits album.
* "Do Somethin'" (2005) (file info) — play in browser (beta)
o The last single from Britney Spears' greatest hits album.
* Problems playing the files? See media help.

Months after the Las Vegas incident, Spears embarked on The Onyx Hotel Tour which was cancelled in June, after Spears injured her knee during the filming of the video for the single "Outrageous". An MRI showed floating cartilage in her knee.[44] Throughout this time she began a relationship with Kevin Federline and in July 2004, Spears announced her engagement three months after they met. Federline had very recently been in a relationship with actress Shar Jackson, who was at the time pregnant with his second child.[45] These initial stages were chronicled in Spears' first reality show Britney & Kevin: Chaotic, which aired on UPN during May and June of 2005.[46] On the night of September 18, 2004, Spears married Federline in a surprise, non-denominational ceremony at a residence in Studio City, California, filing legal papers on October 6, 2004.[47][48]

After the marriage Spears announced via her website that she would be taking another career break in order to start a family.[49] Her artistic career did remain low profile only releasing her first hits collection, Greatest Hits: My Prerogative. The album debuted at number four on the U.S. charts and featured three new songs, including "My Prerogative".[50] Britney stood by her intent of starting a family; and seven months after her marriage she chose her website to announce her pregnancy writing, "the time has finally come to share our wonderful news that we are expecting our first child together.”[51] Britney gave birth to her first child, son Sean Preston Federline, on September 14, 2005 in Santa Monica, California by a scheduled caesarean section.[52]

A few months after giving birth to Sean, speculation about Spears being pregnant for a second time began to swirl.[53] In May 2006, she announced her second pregnancy with an appearance on The Late Show with David Letterman.[54] Spears appeared on Dateline NBC the next month to discuss tabloid rumors about an impending divorce, and motherhood. She addressed an incident which occurred in February 2006 when photos revealed her driving with her son unrestrained in her lap,[55] explaining, "I see a bunch of photographers and I’m scared and I want to get out of the situation... They’re coming up on the sides of the car which is a scary situation for me... so I get my baby out of the car and I go home.”[56] The month following the televised interview, Spears posed nude for the August 2006 cover of Harper's Bazaar. In the accompanying interview, Spears stated that she is not ready to retire from performing.[57][58]

Just two days shy of Sean's first birthday, Spears gave birth to her second son Jayden James Federline on September 12, 2006 in Los Angeles, California.[59] Spears filed for divorce from Federline November 7, 2006 citing irreconcilable differences and asking for both physical and legal custody of their two children, with visitation rights for Federline.[2] Laura Wasser has been hired to represent Spears in the case.[60] According to a representative for Federline's lawyer, the divorce filing "caught Kevin totally by surprise."[61] Finally, on March 29, 2007, Spears and Federline reached a settlement, "All parties signed a global settlement agreement on all issues concerning their marriage and custody of their two children," said Michael Sands, spokesperson for Federline's lawyer, Mark Vincent Kaplan.[62]

2007: Personal struggles

In January, Spears lost her aunt Sandra Bridges Covington, with whom she was very close, after a long battle with breast cancer.[63] On February 16, 2007, Spears entered an off-shore drug rehabilitation facility in Antigua. She stayed, however, for less than twenty-four hours.[64] The following night, Spears went to a haircutting studio in Tarzana, California and subsequently shaved her own hair off with clippers.[65] A few days later, on February 20, 2007, Spears admitted herself to a treatment facility in Malibu, California. A statement by her manager read, "We ask that the media respect her privacy as well as those of her family and friends at this time."[66] She left the facility briefly but returned on February 22, 2007.[67] The previous day Kevin Federline had requested an emergency hearing regarding the custody of his children with Spears but his attorney announced that his client asked to cancel the court appearance. No further explanation was given.[68] Spears left rehab on March 20 according to her manager who said she was released after "successfully completing their program".[69]

Return To Music

Spears has been recording a new album with such popular producers as Sean Garrett and Jonathan Rotem. A official release date has yet to be announced though in January 2007 Spears hoped in releasing it "sometime later this year". The singers manager also told USA Today he estimated a late summer release for the first single and a fall release for the album. [70] In May ShowBiz Tonight announced that Jive has confirmed that the album will be released in November.

On May 1, 2007, Spears produced a "live" performance of five songs (...Baby One More Time (Remix), Do Somethin', I'm A Slave 4 U, Breathe On Me and Toxic) at the House of Blues in San Diego, California, for about fifteen minutes; her first live musical appearance in 3 years. Those in attendance reported that she did not actually perform the songs live, but merely danced and lip-synched to recorded accompaniment.[71] Spears also made similar appearances on May 2, 2007 [72] at The Anaheim House of Blues and May 3, 2007 at the Los Angeles location. Britney's next stop was the Las Vegas, Nevada House of Blues May 5.

Movies and television

Spears attended NYC's Professional Performing Arts School for three summers when she was 8 years old and performed in 1991's Ruthless! and other off-Broadway productions. When she was 11 she joined the The New Mickey Mouse Club where she was featured from 1991-93. In the show she appeared in various sketches and musical videos which mostly displayed her comedic and singing abilities.[8][9]

Spears had her first starring role in the 2002 film, Crossroads where she played Lucy, a Louisiana high school graduate who decides she wants to find her long-lost mother in Arizona, and takes along her two friends who wish to visit California. The movie, along with Spears's performance in it, was poorly received by critics who mostly saw it as an advertisement for Britney's music and endorsments.[73] Crossroads still managed to debut at number two on the box-office charts in its first weekend. The film ended up making over US$60 million worldwide, about five times its budget of US$12 million.[74] Spears netted herself a Razzie Award for Worst Actress and for Worst Original Song "I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman".[75] Also in films Spears has made cameo appearances in Austin Powers in Goldmember in 2002 as herself, and Longshot 2000 as a Flight Attendant.[76]

On March 30, 2006, Spears was a guest-star on an episode of NBC's television show Will & Grace titled "Buy, Buy Baby". She played "Amber-Louise", a closeted lesbian posing as a conservative Christian who is to co-host with Jack McFarland on his talk show "JackTalk". NBC received criticism from conservative Christian groups for the episode.[77][78] The episode was the third highest rated in the final season of the series.[79]

In addition, she has appeared on Saturday Night Live both as host and musical guest twice: once on May 13, 2000, then again on February 2, 2002.[80] At 18, she was the youngest person in SNL history to have acting and musical performing duties on the same show, and remains the only woman to have done so more than once.

Posted by wordblogger at 8:47 AM 0 comments



Buenos Aires

Buenos Aires is the capital of Argentina and its largest city and port. It is located on the southern shore of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent.

Strongly influenced by European culture, Buenos Aires is sometimes referred to as the "Paris of South America".[1][2]

After the internal conflicts of the 19th century, Buenos Aires was federalised and removed from Buenos Aires Province in 1880; its city limits were enlarged to include the former towns of Belgrano and Flores — both are now neighbourhoods in the city.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Names
* 2 History
* 3 Government and politics
o 3.1 National representation
o 3.2 Barrios
* 4 Population
o 4.1 Census data
o 4.2 Origin
o 4.3 Religion
* 5 Economy
* 6 Culture
o 6.1 Language
o 6.2 Tango
o 6.3 Cinema
o 6.4 Miscellaneous
* 7 Tourism
* 8 Transportation
o 8.1 Public transport
o 8.2 Roadways
o 8.3 Rail transport
o 8.4 Airports
* 9 Sports
* 10 Internet
* 11 Trivia
* 12 See also
* 13 References
* 14 External links
o 14.1 Newspapers

[edit] Names
Residential buildings in Buenos Aires.
Residential buildings in Buenos Aires.

Buenos Aires (English: Fair Winds, pronounced [ˈbwe.nɔs ˈaj.ɾɛs]) was originally called Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire, "City of the Most Holy Trinity and Port of Saint Mary of the Fair Winds"[3].

The city name was chosen by the chaplain of Mendoza's expedition (see History, below), who was a devout follower of the Virgine de Bonaria ("Our Lady of the Fair Winds") of Cagliari, Sardinia.

Argentines sometimes refer to the city as Capital Federal to differentiate the city from the province of the same name. In the 1994 constitution, the city was given autonomy, hence its formal name: Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires.

The abbreviations Bs. As. and Baires are sometimes used, the first one mostly in writing and the second one in everyday speech.

The city is sometimes called La Reina del Plata, that is, "The Queen of the Plata" (referred to the river).

[edit] History
Location in Argentina
Location in Argentina

Spanish seaman Juan Díaz de Solís was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata, in 1516, but his expedition was cut short by an attack in which he was killed by the native Charrúa or Guaraní tribe.

The city was first founded as Ciudad de Nuestra Señora Santa María del Buen Ayre[2] (literally "City of Our Lady Saint Mary of the Fair Winds:) on February 2, 1536 by a Spanish expedition under Pedro de Mendoza. The location of Mendoza's city was in today's San Telmo district, south of the city center.

More attacks by the indigenous peoples forced the settlers away, and in 1541 the site was abandoned. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay).

From its earliest days,the success of Buenos Aires depended on trade. During most of the 17th and 18th centuries, Spain insisted that all trade to Europe pass through Lima, Peru so that taxes could be collected. This scheme frustrated the traders of Buenos Aires, and a thriving contraband industry developed. Unsurprisingly, this also instilled a deep resentment in porteños towards Spanish authorities.[2]

Sensing these feelings, Charles III of Spain progressively eased the trade restrictions and finally declared Buenos Aires an open port in the late 1700s. Those placating actions did not have the desired effect, and the porteños, some of them versed in the ideology of the French revolution, became even more desirous of independence from Spain.
The Buenos Aires Cabildo, site of the 1810 May Revolution.
The Buenos Aires Cabildo, site of the 1810 May Revolution.

During the British invasions of the Río de la Plata British forces invaded Buenos Aires twice in 1806–1807 but were repulsed by local militias. Ultimately, on May 25, 1810, while Spain endured the Peninsular War and after a week of mostly pacific deliberations, the criollo citizens of Buenos Aires successfully ousted the Spanish Viceroy and established a provisional government. May 25 is now celebrated as a national holiday (May Revolution Day). Formal independence from Spain was declared only in 1816.

Historically, Buenos Aires has been Argentina's main centre for liberal and free-trade ideas, while many of the provinces, especially to the Northwest, advocated a more conservative-Catholic approach to political and social issues. Many tensions within Argentine history, starting with the centralist-federalist conflicts of the 19th century, can be traced back to these contrasting views.

In the 19th century the city suffered naval blockades on two occasions: by the French from 1838 to 1840, and a joint Anglo-French blockade from 1845 to 1848. Both blockades failed to surrender the city, and the foreign powers eventually desisted from their demands.
Map of Buenos Aires of 1530s.
Map of Buenos Aires of 1530s.

During most of the 19th century, the political status of the city remained a sensitive subject. It was already capital of Buenos Aires Province, and between 1853 and 1860 it was the capital of the seceded State of Buenos Aires. The issue was debated more than once on the battlefield, until the matter was finally settled in 1880 when the city was federalised and became the seat of government, with its Mayor appointed by the President. The Casa Rosada became the seat of the office of the President.

Railroad construction in the second half of the 19th century increased the economic power of Buenos Aires as raw materials flowed into its factories; Buenos Aires became a multicultural city that ranked itself with the major European capitals. The Colón Theater became one of the world's top opera venues. The city's main avenues were built in those years, and the dawn of the 20th century saw the construction of South America's then-tallest buildings and first subway network.

By the 1920s Buenos Aires was a favoured destination for immigrants from Europe, as well as from the poorer provinces and neighbouring countries. Large shanty towns (villas miseria) started growing around the city's industrial areas, leading to extensive social problems, which contrasted sharply with Argentina's image as a country of riches.
Juan Domingo Perón, three-time President of Argentina
Juan Domingo Perón, three-time President of Argentina

Buenos Aires was the cradle of Peronism: the now-mythical demonstration of October 17, 1945 took place in Plaza de Mayo.[4] Industrial workers of the Greater Buenos Aires industrial belt have been Peronism's main support base ever since, and Plaza de Mayo became the site for demonstrations and many of the country's political events.

On June 16, 1955, a splinter faction of the navy bombed the Plaza de Mayo area, killing 364 civilians (see Bombing of Plaza de Mayo). This was the only time the city was attacked from the air. This event was followed by a military uprising that would depose President Perón three months later (see Revolución Libertadora).

In the 1970s, the city suffered from the fighting between left-wing revolutionary movements (Montoneros, E.R.P. and F.A.R.) and right-wing paramilitary group Triple A, supported by Isabel Perón, who became president of Argentina in 1974, after Juan Perón's death.

The military coup of 1976, led by Jorge Rafael Videla, only escalated this conflict; the "Dirty War" produced between 10,000 and 30,000 desaparecidos, people kidnapped and killed by the military during the years of the junta.[5] The silent marches of their mothers (Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo) are a well-known image of Argentine suffering during those times.

The city was visited by Pope John Paul II twice: in 1982, due to the outbreak of the Falklands-Malvinas War, and a second visit in 1987, which gathered crowds never seen before in the city.

On March 17, 1992 a bomb exploded in the Israeli Embassy killing 29 and injuring 242. Another explosion, on July 18, 1994, destroyed a building housing several Jewish organizations killing 85 and injuring many more (see AMIA bombing).

On December 30, 2004, a fire at República Cromagnon concert hall killed almost 200 people, the greatest non-natural tragedy in Argentine history.

[edit] Government and politics
Government house of Buenos Aires.
Government house of Buenos Aires.

In 1996, under the 1994 reform of the Argentine Constitution, the city gained autonomous status, and held its first mayoral elections (the mayor's title was changed to "Chief of Government"). The winner was Fernando de la Rúa, who would be President of Argentina in the period from 1999 to 2001.

De la Rúa's successor, Aníbal Ibarra, won two popular elections, but was impeached (and ultimately deposed on 6 March 2006) as a result of the fire at República Cromagnon. Jorge Telerman, who had been the acting mayor, was invested with the office.

[edit] National representation

Buenos Aires is represented in the Argentine Senate by three senators (as of January 2007, Rodolfo Terragno, María Leguizamón and Vilma Ibarra).[6] The people of Buenos Aires also elect 25 national deputies for the Argentine Chamber of Deputies.

[edit] Barrios

Main article: Barrios of Buenos Aires

The Obelisk from street level.
The Obelisk from street level.

The city is divided into 48 barrios (neighbourhoods) for administrative purposes.[7] The division was originally based on Catholic parroquias (parishes), but has undergone a series of changes since the 1940s. A newer scheme has divided the city into 15 comunas (communes).[8]

[edit] Population

The people of Buenos Aires are known as porteños (people of the port), due to the significance of the port in the development of the city and the nation. The people of Buenos Aires province (sometimes including the city's suburbia) are called bonaerenses.

[edit] Census data
Population growth since 1740
Population growth since 1740

According to the census, the city proper has a population of 2,776,138, while the Greater Buenos Aires conurbation has more than 12.4 million inhabitants (2001 census [INDEC]). The population of the city has been stagnant since the late 1960s, due to low birth rates and a slow flight to suburbia.

[edit] Origin

Most porteños have European origins, with Spanish and Italian descent being the most common, mainly from the Galician, Asturian, and Basque regions of Spain, and the Calabrian, Ligurian, Piedmont, Lombardy and Neapolitan regions of Italy.

Other European origins include German, Portuguese, Polish, Irish, French, Croatian, English and Welsh. In the 1990s, there was a small wave of immigration from Romania and Ukraine.
The city's population density is about 13.000 hab/km².
The city's population density is about 13.000 hab/km².

There is a minority of old criollo stock, dating back to the Spanish colonial days. Criollo and Spanish-aboriginal (mestizo) population in the city has increased mostly as a result of migration, both from the provinces and from nearby countries such as Bolivia, Peru and Paraguay, since the second half of the 20th century.

Important Arab (mostly Syrian-Lebanese) and Armenian communities have been significant in commerce and civic life since the beginning of the 20th century.

The Jewish community in Greater Buenos Aires numbers around 245,000, and is the largest in Latin America. Most are of Eastern European Ashkenazi origin, with a significant minority of Sephardic, mostly Syrian Jews.

The first major East Asian community in Buenos Aires was the Japanese, mainly from Okinawa. Traditionally, Japanese-Argentines were noted as flower growers; in the city proper, there was a Japanese near-monopoly in dry cleaning. Later generations have branched into all fields of activity. Ever since the 1970s there has been an important influx of immigration from China and Korea (see also: Asian-Argentines).

[edit] Religion

Most inhabitants are Roman Catholic. Buenos Aires is the seat of a Roman Catholic metropolitan archbishop (who is the prelate of Argentina), as well as of several Eastern Orthodox and Anglican hierarchs. Evangelical churches have steadily increased their ranks since the 1980s.

Sizable Jewish and Muslim communities have existed in the city for over 100 years.

[edit] Economy
A NASA satellite photo of the Río de la Plata area. Gran Buenos Aires can be seen on the right.
A NASA satellite photo of the Río de la Plata area. Gran Buenos Aires can be seen on the right.

Buenos Aires is the financial, industrial, commercial, and cultural hub of Argentina. Its port is one of the busiest in the world. Tax collection related to it has caused many political problems in the past [*]; navigable rivers by way of the Rio de la Plata connect the port to north-east Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay. As a result, it serves as the distribution hub for a vast area of the south-eastern region of the South American continent.

To the west of Buenos Aires is the Pampa Húmeda, the most productive agricultural region of Argentina (as opposed to the dry southern Pampa, mostly used for cattle farming). Meat, dairy, grain, tobacco, wool and hide products are processed or manufactured in the Buenos Aires area. Other leading industries are automobile manufacturing, oil refining, metalworking, machine building, and the production of textiles, chemicals, clothing, and beverages.

[edit] Culture
1923 Barolo Palace, on Avenida de Mayo.
1923 Barolo Palace, on Avenida de Mayo.

Deeply influenced and self-consciously modeled after its European heritage, Buenos Aires is the site of the Teatro Colón, one of the world's greatest opera houses.[9] There are several symphony orchestras and choral societies. The city has numerous museums related to history, fine arts, modern arts, decorative arts, popular arts, sacred art, arts and crafts, theatre and popular music, as well as the preserved homes of noted art collectors, writers, composers and artists. It harbours many public libraries and cultural associations as well as the largest concentration of active theatres in Latin America. It has a world-famous zoo and Botanical Garden, a large number of landscaped parks and squares, as well as churches and places of worship of many denominations, many of which are architecturally noteworthy.[9]

[edit] Language

Buenos Aires' Spanish (and also in other cities like Rosario and Montevideo, Uruguay) is characterised by voseo, yeísmo and aspiration or loss of syllable-final -s. Heavily influenced by the dialects of Spanish spoken in Andalusia and Murcia, it is sometimes known as Rioplatense Spanish.
1888 German map of Buenos Aires.
1888 German map of Buenos Aires.

In the early 20th century, Argentina absorbed millions of immigrants, many of them Italians, who spoke mostly in their local dialects (mainly Neapolitan, Sicilian and Genoan). Their adoption of Spanish was gradual, creating a pidgin of Italian dialects and Spanish called cocoliche, widely heard in the beginning of the 20th century; its usage declined around the 1950s, and today survives mostly as comic relief.

A phonetic study conducted by the Laboratory for Sensory Investigations of CONICET and the University of Toronto showed that the Porteño accent is closer to the Neapolitan dialect of Italian than any other spoken language.

As many Spanish immigrants were from Galicia, to the extent that Spaniards are still generically called gallegos (Galicians), Galician language, cuisine and culture had a major presence in the city for most of the 20th century. In recent years, descendants of Galician immigrants have led a mini-boom in Celtic music (which also highlighted the Welsh traditions of Patagonia).

Yiddish was commonly heard in Buenos Aires, especially in the Balvanera garment district and in Villa Crespo, until the 1960s. Korean and Chinese have become significant since the 1970s. Most of the newer immigrants learn Spanish quickly and assimilate into city life.

The lunfardo argot originated within the prison population, and in time it spread to all porteños. Lunfardo uses words from Italian dialects, from Brazilian Portuguese, from African and Caribbean origin and even from English; and employs humorous tricks such as inverting the syllables within a word (vesre). Today, lunfardo is mostly heard on tango lyrics; the slang of the younger generations has been evolving away from it.

[edit] Tango
Tango in the streets of Buenos Aires.
Tango in the streets of Buenos Aires.

Tango music was born in the suburbs, notably in the brothels of the Junín y Lavalle district and in the arrabales (poorer suburbs). Its sensual dance moves were not seen as respectable until adopted by the Parisian high society in the 1920s, and then all over the world. In Buenos Aires, tango dancing schools (known as academias) were usually men-only establishments.

Starting in the 1920s, the Buenos Aires style of tango music evolved into an elaborated genre. In its heyday, tango had many famous orchestras such as those led by Aníbal Troilo and Juan D'Arienzo, and singers such as Carlos Gardel and Edmundo Rivero. Tango enjoyed a resurgence in global popularity later in the 20th century due almost exclusively to Astor Piazzolla and his development of the tango nuevo style.

Buenos Aires holds an annual "Tango Day" each December 11.

In San Telmo, Sundays are devoted to tango shows on the streets and antiques trade in the bazaars around Dorrego Square. Tango shows can be found in establishments such as Rivero's El Viejo Almacén.[9]

[edit] Cinema

Buenos Aires has been the centre of the Argentine cinema industry in Argentina for over 100 years since French camera operator Eugene Py, living in the city directed the first ever film La Bandera Argentina in 1897. Since then well over 2000 films have been directed and produced within the city with many films incorporating the name of the city into the titles such as Buenos Aires Plateada, Buenos Aires a la vista, Buenos Aires me mata, Buenos Aires, Ciudad de Ensueño and Buenos Aires, verano 1912. The culture of tango music has been incorporated into many films produced in the city, becoming very popular since the 1930s. The films have often starred tango performers such as Hugo del Carril, Tita Merello, Carlos Gardel and Edmundo Rivero.

[edit] Miscellaneous
Buenos Aires as seen from the Ecological Reserve.
Buenos Aires as seen from the Ecological Reserve.

Buenos Aires was home to Argentine writers Roberto Arlt, Leopoldo Lugones, Jorge Luis Borges, Paul Groussac, Manuel Mujica Laínez, Adolfo Bioy Casares, Ernesto Sábato, Leopoldo Marechal, Victoria Ocampo, and Julio Cortázar (who lived in Paris for most of his career). International figures who lived in Buenos Aires include René Goscinny, Marcel Duchamp, Witold Gombrowicz, Jerry Masucci, Romola Nijinska, Rosa Chacel, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry and Eugene O' Neill, as well as businesspeople John S. Reed, and Aristotle Onassis.

During the Spanish Civil War and its aftermath, Buenos Aires provided refuge for many, including philosopher José Ortega y Gasset and composer Manuel de Falla, who later moved to Córdoba.

Luca Prodan arrived from England in the 1980s and became an icon of Argentine rock. Dee Dee Ramone lived for some time in a suburb of Buenos Aires with his Argentine girlfriend Barbara after leaving the Ramones.

The University of Buenos Aires, one of the top learning institutions in South America, has produced five Nobel Prize winners and provides free education for students from all around the globe.

For much of the 20th century, Buenos Aires was the cultural capital of the Spanish-speaking world, and many porteños flaunted their riches abroad. This gave birth to a stereotype of Argentines as vain and arrogant that became widespread across Latin America; some (especially Uruguayans) make the distinction between porteños and provincianos (people from the provinces), the latter being excluded from this characterization.

Buenos Aires is a major center for psychoanalysis, particularly the Lacanian school.

[edit] Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Buenos Aires

The city has many museums, historical buildings, shopping centres, hotels and there is a floating casino that departs from Puerto Madero neighbourhood (since casinos are illegal in the city, gambling starts when in international waters).

[edit] Transportation
Subway station in Monserrat, Buenos Aires
Subway station in Monserrat, Buenos Aires

[edit] Public transport

A majority of residents in Buenos Aires and its suburbs use public transportation. A Buenos Aires invention is the "colectivo", originally a small bus built out of a truck chassis and seating 21 to 27, today they have grown in size and carry up to 60 passengers. Numerous colectivos and larger public buses traverse the city continuously each hour providing access to virtually all neighborhoods.

The Buenos Aires Metro (locally known as el subte, from "subterráneo" meaning "underground") is an extensive system providing access to various parts of the city. Opened in 1913, it is the oldest subway system in the Southern Hemisphere and in the Spanish-speaking world.[2] The system has five lines, named A to E, 80 stations, and 46 km of track. An expansion program is underway to enlarge existing lines deeper into the outer neighborhoods and add a new north-south line. Track length is expected to reach 89 km by the year 2011.

[edit] Roadways
A building with European and modern styles in Buenos Aires.
A building with European and modern styles in Buenos Aires.

Buenos Aires used to be relatively congestion-free for a city of its size. Toll freeways opened in the late 1970s by then-mayor Osvaldo Cacciatore provided fast access to the downtown area, increasing the number of cars coming into the city. During Cacciatore's tenure, the streets of the downtown financial district (roughly one square kilometre in size) were declared off-limits to private cars during daytime. Main avenues of the city include the 140-m-wide 9 de Julio Avenue, the over-35-km-long Rivadavia Avenue,[10] and Corrientes Avenue, the main thoroughfare of culture and entertainment. Avenida General Paz is a motorway that surrounds Buenos Aires thus separating the city from Buenos Aires Province.

Following the economic mini-boom of the 1990s, more people started commuting by car, and congestion increased. Most major avenues are gridlocked at peak hours. Another source of congestion is the flight of many people to the country on weekends.

Black-and-yellow taxis roam the streets at all hours. Some of these are unlicensed (controls are not fully enforced), so visitors are advised to phone a reputable radio-link company. Low-fare limo services, known as remises, have become more popular in recent years.

[edit] Rail transport

Several types of rail transport are in use today: Buenos Aires Metro (el Subte), a pre-metro light rail line, the tren de la costa ("coastal train", a light rail interurban), a heritage tramway and several electric and diesel interurban and long distance commuter trains.

Argentina's extensive railway network converges on Buenos Aires. The three principal stations for both long-distance passenger services and commuter trains are Estación Retiro, Estación Constitución, and Estación Once.[9]

There is a project to build a Buenos Aires-Rosario-Córdoba high-speed railway, which would join the three largest cities in Argentina. Bids were opened in mid-2006, and proposals by four European firms are under study. Construction is slated to start in 2007[citation needed], to be finished in 2010.

Buenos Aires once had an extensive tramway network with over 857 km (535 mi) of track, dismantled during the 1960s in favor of bus transportation. A 2 km light rail tram is being built in the Puerto Madero district, with an extension to Retiro station and La Boca in the planning stages.

[edit] Airports

The Buenos Aires international airport, Ministro Pistarini International Airport, is located in the suburb of Ezeiza and is often called simply "Ezeiza". The Aeroparque Jorge Newbery airport, located in the Palermo neighborhood next to the riverbank, serves mostly domestic traffic.

[edit] Sports

Football (soccer) is a passion for Argentines. Buenos Aires has the highest concentration of football teams of any city in the world (featuring no less than 24 professional football teams),[11] with many of its teams playing in the major league. The best-known rivalry is the one between Boca Juniors and River Plate; a match between these two teams was named as one of the "50 sporting things you must do before you die" by The Observer.[11] Other major clubs include San Lorenzo de Almagro, Vélez Sársfield and Club Atlético Huracán, of Parque Patricios((the Greatest Five)).

Diego Armando Maradona, who was born in a poor suburb of Buenos Aires and is widely hailed as one of the greatest football players ever, started his career with Argentinos Juniors and later played for Boca Juniors (he also played for other clubs, notably Italian side SSC Napoli).

Buenos Aires has been a candidate city for the Summer Olympic Games on three occasions: for the 1956 Games, lost by a single vote to Melbourne; for the 1968 Summer Olympics, which were held in Mexico City (to this date, the only Games held in Latin America); and in 2004, when the games were awarded to Athens. As of 2006, Argentina is the only founding member of the International Olympic Committee that has not hosted the games.

However, Buenos Aires hosted the 1951 Pan American Games - the first,[9] and was also host city to several World Championship events: the 1950 and 1990 Basketball World Championships, the 1982 and 2002 Men's Volleyball World Championships and, most remembered, the 1978 FIFA World Cup, won by Argentina on June 25, 1978 when it defeated the Netherlands by 3–1.
Calatrava's Puente de La Mujer (Women's Bridge) in Puerto Madero.
Calatrava's Puente de La Mujer (Women's Bridge) in Puerto Madero.

The Buenos Aires Oscar Gálvez car-racing track hosted 20 editions of the Formula One Argentine Grand Prix between 1953 and 1998; its discontinuation was due to financial reasons. The track features local categories on most weekends.

Argentines' love for horses can be experienced in several ways: horse racing at the Hipódromo Argentino de Palermo racetrack, polo in the Campo Argentino de Polo (located just across Libertador Avenue from the Hipódromo), and pato, a kind of basketball played on horseback that was declared the national game in 1953.

Buenos Aires native Guillermo Vilas (who was raised in Mar del Plata) was one of the great tennis players of the 1970s and 1980s,[9] and popularized tennis in all of Argentina.

Other popular sports in Buenos Aires are golf, basketball, rugby, and field hockey.

[edit] Internet

Buenos Aires ISPs provide dial-up, cable, satellite-based and ADSL connections to the Internet. The Internet boom in the early 2000s gave birth to cibercafés. There is a growing number of wi-fi hotspots, mostly around the downtown area and now in all "Subte" lines, except for the A line, which is in process.

[edit] Trivia

Buenos Aires is located in the antipodes of Shanghai, China

Posted by wordblogger at 8:34 AM 0 comments



Hardin County onion pickers strike

Hardin County onion pickers strike
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The Hardin County onion pickers strike was a strike by agricultural workers in Hardin County, Ohio, in 1934. Led by the Agricultural Workers Union, Local 19724, the strike began on June 20, two days after the trade union formed. After the kidnapping and beating of the union's leader and the intervention of the Ohio National Guard on behalf of the growers, the strike ended in October with a partial victory for the union. Some growers met the union's demand for a 35-cents-an-hour minimum wage, but the majority did not.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 The Hardin County onion fields
* 2 Legality of farm labor unions
* 3 Beginning of the strike
o 3.1 Injunction
o 3.2 First settlement attempt and outbreak of violence
* 4 Bombing of the mayor's home and seizure of the town of McGuffey
* 5 Conclusion of the strike
* 6 Notes
* 7 References

[edit] The Hardin County onion fields

Hardin County, Ohio, contained a large onion-growing region about 12 miles (19 km) east of the town of Lima. Two main growing areas existed. Scioto Marsh consisted of about 17,000 acres (69 km²) of farmland. The top three growers controlled about 30 percent of Scioto Marsh land under cultivation. Hog Creek Marsh was a smaller growing area which consisted of about 4,000 acres (16 km²). The largest owner of Hog Creek marshland controlled about a third of that area's total land under cultivation. Roughly 25 smaller growers cultivated the rest of the farmland.[1][2]

Wages and working conditions for agricultural workers in Hardin County were poor even before the onset of the Great Depression. A plentiful supply of Caucasian migrant farm workers kept wages far below those of other counties and states. Working conditions were harsh. Laborers worked on their hands and knees weeding and picking onions. The work day was 10 hours long, with a 15 minute break for lunch and no overtime. There were no toilet facilities or restroom breaks, and water and first aid for injuries or heat exhaustion were not provided. The black earth absorbed heat, and temperatures near the ground could reach 120 degrees Fahrenheit (49 °C). Many workers lived in employer-provided housing, and were given an employer-owned milk cow (on loan) to prevent starvation.[1][2][3][4][5]

Crop yields from the Hardin County onion fields were declining significantly by 1930 due to soil exhaustion as crop rotation was not practiced. As the Great Depression worsened, growers reduced the amount of land under cultivation even further to only 3,500 acres (14 km²). Growers also cut wages and required laborers to work longer hours.[1][2][6][7]

By June 1934, economic conditions for farm workers in Hardin County were especially severe. The prevailing wage was 12 cents an hour, but many workers earned only 8 cents an hour. Eight out of 10 families were considered to be living in extreme poverty, and almost half of all workers reported working only 26 days a year.[2]

[edit] Legality of farm labor unions

When the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) was passed in 1935, it specifically exempted agricultural workers from the protection of the law. Although it was not illegal for farm workers to organize unions, federal (and state) law did not protect their ability to do so. Subsequently, most employers discriminated heavily against agricultural workers who attempted to form unions, and used a variety of techniques (many heavy-handed, and some actually coercive) to resist farm unionization.[2][8]

[edit] Beginning of the strike

On June 18 and June 19, 1934, weeders and pickers working on onion farms in Hardin County formed a union, the Agricultural Workers Union, under the leadership of Okey Odell, a 38-year-old weeder.[4] The workers were assisted by J.M. Rizor, an organizer for the International Quarrymen's Union. Their union was recognized by the American Federation of Labor (AFL) as a federal union, and listed as Local 19724.[7][3]

The workers immediately demanded recognition of their union, a 23-cents-an-hour wage increase (to obtain a minimum wage of 35 cents an hour), and an eight-hour work day.[7][3][2]

Led by the top four landowners, the 30 growers formed the Onion Growers' Association to oppose the union. Odell and Rizor asked to meet with the Association, but the growers refused and said they would let their fields be overgrown with weeds first.[2] The growers subsequently told the press that meeting with the union was pointless, since the growers were already losing money. The union challenged this claim, pointing out that at least one grower had recently purchased three new automobiles. But the growers stuck by their claim. A few weeks later, the Ohio state legislature asked the growers to open their books as part of a state investigation into the strike. But the growers declinded to do so. To the union, this was merely additional evidence that the growers were profitable.[3][2]

Odell called a strike on June 20. About 800 of the county's 1,000 onion field workers walked out.[2] To prevent replacement workers from entering the fields and breaking the strike, the strikers attempted to stop and search all automobiles entering the Scioto Marsh and Hog Creek Marsh areas. For the first week of the strike, there was no violence.[3] The Socialist Party of America and the American Civil Liberties Union raised funds for strike relief.[2][7]

The union also received assistance from the Ohio Unemployed League. The League was an branch of the American Workers Party (AWP). The goal of the League was to organize jobless workers, advocate for higher relief payments for the unemployed, and help the unemployed resist employer calls to take striking workers' jobs.[9] The League and the union struck a deal which provided for the legal defense of union members by the AWP and the League. League leaders obtained representation on the union's strike committee, assurances that the strike would be carried out using militant tactics, and that no settlement of the strike would be made without agreement of the strikers. Pursuant to this agreement, Toledo League leader [[Sam Pollock (labor leader)}Sam Pollock]] became part of the union's strike leadership team.[3]

[edit] Injunction

The growers immediately went to court to prevent the union from picketing in the fields.

On June 22, Court of Common Pleas Judge Hamilton E. Hoge issued one of the most sweeping anti-labor injunctions in American history.[3][7]

The injunction restricted picketing to groups of two. Judge Hoge left it up to the discretion of sheriffs' deputies how far apart each group must be.[2] Initially, the union established 34 pickets at least 25 feet (8 m) apart. Deputies arrested half the strikers. The union increased the distance between pickets to 50 yards (16 m), and still arrests occurred. Distance between pickets was extended to 100 yards (90 m), then a quarter of a mile (400 m), and in some cases a half mile (800 m). Arrests continued. On a number of occasions, deputies called pickets together and, when they obeyed, arrested them for congregating unlawfully.[3][7]

To enforce the injunction, 54 "special" sheriff's deputies were hired and sworn in. The deputies' salaries were paid for by the growers. Although the deputies technically remained under the supervision of the Hardin County sheriff, the deputies were under the control of the growers and their field foremen. Most of the special sheriff's deputies were members of the Hardin County detachment of the Ohio National Guard and veterans of the Auto-Lite strike in nearby Toledo, which had only recently ended. The National Guard troops, most of whom were only 18 years old, were determined not to be intimidated by the picketers as they had been in Toledo. The newly-appointed special deputies were armed with riot guns, machine guns, and tear gas equipment from the National Guard armory in Kenton, Ohio.[2][3][7][6]

The union demanded to know why the state was providing the county with troops. When Governor George White was asked why the special deputies were recruited solely from the Ohio National Guard, he replied that the guardsmen were merely private citizens who had sought temporary employment. The governor saw no problem with arming the county deputies with state-owned weaponry or having full-time, on-duty officers of the Ohio National Guard command and drill the special deputies.[2][3]

The special deputies quickly proved unruly. Local citizens complained that the guards were harassing them. The sheriff referred complaints to the commanding general of the Ohio National Guard, who then told petitioners that this was a matter for the local county sheriff. When prominent Hardin County business leaders forced the sheriff to deal with these problems, the sheriff ordered an investigation. But the investigation was never carried out, and the National Guard troops' behavior worsened.[2][3][7]

[edit] First settlement attempt and outbreak of violence

On June 27, the United States Department of Labor sent a mediator to Hardin County to help settle the strike. The growers agreed to raise the minimum wage to 15 cents an hour, but the union rejected the offer.[2][3][7][10]

After the settlement's rejection, employers began evicting workers from employer-owned homes.[4][3]

The employers also began to resort to violence to protect their replacement workers and break the strike. Vigilante groups were formed which beat strikers and union sympathizers, and ran them out of town at gunpoint. Shots were fired at picketers and at union members attending meetings. The growers hired another 50 special deputies to patrol the fields with machine guns, and special deputies used extensive amounts of tear gas to harass and break up pickets. National Guard troops began clubbing and beating picketers whenever they encountered them.[2][7][6] On June 29, two strikers were shot and wounded by National Guard troops after they attempted to stop a truck of strikebreakers from entering a field.[11]

Union members and their supporters also resorted to violence. The growers began large-scale importation of replacement workers to break the strike. When they could intercept trucks carrying replacement workers, the strikers would throw rocks, bricks and bottles at the strikebreakers. Fistfights broke out whenever striking workers and strikebreakers encountered one another. Union members and sympathizers cut telephone wires throughout the county, blew up bridges, scattered nails on roads to stop and slow truck traffic, fired shots at strikebreakers, burned warehouses, and set off small explosions in towns, villages and onion processing stations throughout the county. Strikers even bombed the home of the owner of the Scioto Land Company, the largest landowner in Scioto Marsh.[2][7][6][4]

The level of violence led to a large number of arrests. Over the next 20 days, more than 60 picketers were arrested.[2][4] Odell was arrested and charged with contempt of court for violating Judge Hoge's injunction. A Scioto Land Company official, had approached Odell on the street and brandished a gun in his face. Arrested by the town marshal, the official retaliated by having Odell arrested for "congregating" in violation of the injunction. Odell served 10 days in jail for contempt of court. Pollock, too, was arrested and jailed. When a truckload of strikebreakers attempted to run down a group of pickets, the pickets (led by Pollock) retaliated by hurling stones and bottles at the truck. Pollock was charged with unlawful assemblage, inciting to riot, and malicious destruction of property. Pollock's wife and defense lawyers were unlawfully denied access to him for several days. When they finally did see him, sheriff's deputies stood close by to intimidate them and listen in on their privileged conversation.[3][4]

[edit] Bombing of the mayor's home and seizure of the town of McGuffey

Near dawn on the morning of August 25, 1934, a bomb exploded at the home of Godfrey Ott, mayor of the town of McGuffey, Ohio. The explosion ripped away the entire side of the home. Although the mayor and his wife were sleeping in the home at the time, they were not injured. [4][2][7][6][12]

Although he denied any involvement with the bombing, Odell was arrested minutes later and taken to the Hardin County jail (which was located in the town of McGuffey). However, sheriff's deputies refused charge Odell. As Odell was being booked, about 200 anti-union vigilantes rushed the jail, seized Odell, took him out of the jail and threw him on a waiting truck. Sheriff's deputies stopped the truck and demanded to know if Odell was aboard. Odell claimed he shouted to let the deputies know he was there, but the deputies ignored him.[4] Odell claimed that at least 15 sheriff's deputies were in the jail and could have prevented his abduction, but the county sheriff contended that only three deputies were on hand.[12] To Odell and union sympathizers, the sheriff's deputies appeared to be cooperating in the kidnapping.[7][6]

Odell taken to Waynesfield, a small village in Auglaize County about 12 miles away. There, Odell was beaten and threatened with death. He was then taken to a highway in mid-afternoon and left at the side of the road.[4][7][6]

During the day, the town of McGuffey was seized by hundreds of armed anti-union vigilantes. The vigilantes patrolled the town on foot and accosted any citizens they found on the street. They demanded to know if the citizen was a union supporter. If the individual claimed not to be taking sides in the strike, the vigilantes threatened them with death and told them to leave town. As the capture of the town continued throughout the day, union members and their families barricaded themselves inside their homes, fearing for their lives.[4][7][6]

During the afternoon, Odell hitch hiked back to McGuffey. He obtained a revolver from his home and then walked with his brother through the center of town, defying the vigilantes to kill him. Odell returned home in the late afternoon.[4][7][6]

After Odell returned home, a crowd of 200 men and women gathered in front of his home and demanded that he leave town or suffer the consequences. Odell replied, "Tell them to go to hell."[4] Odell then went to bed, a revolver under his pillow and armed union guards stationed throughout the house. The crowd continued to surround Odell's house throughout the evening, shouting obscenities and threatening Odell and his family. Only five sheriff's deputies stood nearby to handle the mob. Around midnight, the crowd climbed into cars and trucks and paraded around Odell's home, honking horns and brandishing clubs. The vigilante caravan then headed to the nearby town of Alger, where they threatened three other union leaders. One union leader, Floyd Collins, was ill and had to be secretly rushed out of town.[4][2][7][6]

That same day, United States Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins sent Robert C. Fox, another federal mediator, to Hardin County to try to end the strike.[10][12]

The day after his kidnapping, Odell sought to invoke the Federal Kidnapping Act, a new federal statute enacted in 1932 in the wake of the Lindbergh kidnapping.[12] But on August 27, a federal prosecutor said the Federal Kidnapping act would not apply as Odell had not been taken across state lines or held for more than five days.[13][14]

[edit] Conclusion of the strike

On August 28, federal mediator Fox met with Ott, several large growers, and Odell. Odell agreed to reduced his demand for a wage increase to 25 cents an hour. The discussions went so well that Fox felt a resolution to the strike could be reached within a few days.[14] Odell later told the press he had made no such concession.[3]

The strike, however, was close to an end. The 800 strikers had dwindled to a handful as violence drove them from the picket lines. The larger growers were able to employ significant numbers of replacement workers, and onion production was nearly back to full capacity.[2][7][6]

A few days later, several of the smaller growers signed a contract with the union. The contract raised wages to 35 cents per hour, but did not alter working conditions or recognize the union.[2][7][6]

Within a few months, most of the strikebreakers left the area as the growing season wound down. But as onion production continued to drop over the next several years due to soil exhaustion, fewer and fewer onion weeders and pickers workers were needed in Hardin County. A few years after its founding, the Agricultural Workers Union faded away. By the mid-1940s, most of the Hardin County agricultural workers had been replaced by Mexican migrant workers.[2][7][6]

Posted by wordblogger at 8:28